The Different Sources of Law in England and Wales Free Essay Example, 1500 words

To the fluid manner in which judges are able to interpret the law using their knowledge of legal precedent, applying common sense, as critically considering the critical facts of the case they are hearing. Judges create common law by delivering written judgments on the cases that have been brought before them. If magistrates courts across both Wales and England were to be allowed to follow and make their own precedents, this would have the effect of creating relatively huge variations in both the regional and local legal customs in the two countries (Gearey, Morrison and Jago, 2013). The common law works to ensure that the law remains common throughout the land. However, it is the responsibility of the House of Lords and the criminal division of the Court of Appeal to create legal precedents in relation to criminal matters affecting Wales and England. It is the decision that is made by these higher courts that works to bind the lower courts. At times, new situations occur that are f ound to be entirely new in relation to common law. In such instances, courts in England and Wales can sometimes opt to look aboard at the decisions of the courts made in other commonwealth countries in order to seek the necessary guidance or from them. We will write a custom essay sample on The Different Sources of Law in England and Wales or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now This allows for common law systems to have a degree of flexibility and stability as they continue to look to each other for guidance (Gearey, Morrison and Jago, 2013). Although the English legal system is primarily founded n common law, this does not necessarily mean that statutes are any less binding. In fact, the relationship between the statute and common law is that that statute law codifies certain rules whereas the common law serves to provide clarification and interpretations when facts pertaining to instant cases are applied to codified law. The common law helps to keep statute law up to date and in keeping with the modern problems and solutions. It also helps to aids in the creation of precedent where there currently exists no statutory codification. Statutes are effectively superior to common law.

The And Worthy Of College Cost Essay - 2081 Words

â€Å"Post-secondary education should help students to discover what they do, to get better at it, and develop the ability to continue learning so that they become agent of change- not victims of it,† (Roth). The earnestness and worthy of college cost is implanted by the broadening educational accompaniments along with composing necessitous contributors to society, the urging need of higher skilled work, and the effectiveness in selecting a suitable institution. In broadening educational accompaniments along with the contributors involved in society, innovation is stimulated by high standards that are needed in place to promote the continuation of education and the providers that are formed from their college education. An urging need of higher skilled work is current in the economy by requesting a supply of college graduates along with their capabilities. The effectiveness in the selection of a suitable institution justifies the worth of cost in how it results the individual in completing their degree and the followed benefits in the duration of their life. The financial worth of college derives from the intellective objective that leads to innovating provisions to society. Attainments obtained from a college education ignite prosperity within the individual generating growth within a community due to their inputted contributions. The prospective of college affects one’s lifetime through a wide range of outcomes, not only through earnings (Pew Social). Recent studies haveShow MoreRelatedEssay about Higher Education for Free531 Words   |  3 PagesOver the years, college fees have gradually risen for high school graduates. It’s been said that most jobs with a college degree earn almost double of what a high school graduate would earn. 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Recently student athlete have organ ized and decided to fight for the rights to establish players unions similarRead MoreThe Cost Of Post Secondary School Education1176 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction In the recent past, the cost of post-secondary school education has rapidly risen in America. An adjustment of the financial aid that comes from both state and federal governments indicates that the cost of university or college education has surpassed that of health care and even inflation (Casselman, 2012). Some of the facets that have led to the increasing costs are state and federal revenue shortfalls and wrong use of cost offsetting. A recent article published in the Wall StreetRead MoreCollege Campus Shootings Can Happen And Gary Pavela And James Alan Fox1162 Words   |  5 Pagesjourney that is college many new obstacles are bound to come their way, but yet, safety and security should never be the reason for fear in a student. It is becoming more clear that college campus shootings can happen and Gary Pavela and James Alan Fox have outlined the reasons why previous shootings have caused problems within college administration in modern times. Due to research on capmus shooting s college administration has increased their safety measures in the wrong ways. College campuses have

Largely influential play Essay Example For Students

Largely influential play Essay An Inspector Calls written in 1944 by J B Priestley based in 1912, was largely influential play, mainly due to the problems and thoughts of society, which were brought up within the play, and projected through the thoughts and speech of the characters.  Throughout the whole play each character develops and matures in their own way, either by playing a stronger role in the conversations within the play or just being a more influential character. To find out the answer to the question of which character changes the most throughout the play I have chosen to concentrate on one character in particular which changes the most as the play progresses, Sheila. By far the most undeveloped character at the beginning, she wasnt taking part very much in making a mark at the beginning of the act but later on begins to develop more and more, and becomes a more influential role despite her earlier characteristics. Priestley was well known as being a modern day socialist back in 1944 when the play was written. By writing the play Priestley could forward his thoughts and views through the characters, being a socialist some of his mains views for lower class people and society itself were; everyones actions in some way or another effect each other and everyone should be responsible for each other, he strongly showed this view throughout the play with the death of a young woman, Daisy/Eva, but the events leading up towards her death are somewhat shocking for the Birling family who are all somehow linked to everything. Another one of his views were that as a socialist he actively tried to help to fight for the lower class people to have equal rights, same as the people higher up in society. Sheila being somewhat opened minded seeing as she is such a young character allowed Priestley to put across his views through Sheila.  Sheila at the beginning of the play in the first act where the rest of the Birling family are celebrating Sheilas engagement to Gerald Croft, Sheilas character comes across as being very childish with her language being that of a 10 year old nowadays with the use of words of mummy and daddy in most of her speech when she is either speaking to them of referring to them, also her behaviour is very excitable, kind of like a little child in some ways or another. When the inspector arrives with the news of Daisys/Evas death at the infirmary and the inspector begins his inquiry into the death, Sheilas excitable character begins to fade and this is when she starts to show the first signs of her character developing. Questioning begins and the first person to be brought into the inquiry and questioned is Birling (Sheilas father), at this point it is brought up that Birling had fired Daisy Renton (the name the girl, which died went under at that point) was fired due to a strike at the families factory over a dispute of a pay rise, at this point Sheila argues the point the point for the protesters saying but these girls arent cheap labour suggesting she sympathises for them striking for a pay rise and actually arguing with her dad trying to get the point across that these women and more than just a cheap form of labour for his factory. At this point already Sheila has begun to be stronger and she is no longer taking a back seat in the vital conversations and she is also arguing her own views, this is also important because what Sheila said about the cheap labour thing is actually part of what Priestley believes that everyone should have equal rights. .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 , .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .postImageUrl , .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 , .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6:hover , .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6:visited , .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6:active { border:0!important; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6:active , .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6 .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u2b7fcb210b673348f0bbf720ca8cafb6:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Discuss the Dramatic Significance of Act 1 Scene 5 in the Play Romeo and Juliet EssayWhen the inspector finishes with questioning Birling he moves onto Sheila, it is revealed that Sheilas involvement into Daisy/Evas death was that she had Daisy/Eva fired from her job at a local dress shop called Milwards after a little disagreement, but there was more, the way Sheila got her fired was that she used her family name Birling, as a sort of authority over the shop owners, which had a fairly large account at the shop to get her fired otherwise she would withdraw her account with the shop. This shows that by doing this she acted very childishly by using her family name as a sort of backing to argue her pointless point to get Daisy/Eva fired from the shop simply out of spite. After discovering this Sheilas character becomes distraught about what she has done and realises how her actions and her acting so childishly over something so small has lead to the death of Daisy/Eva, this is very contrasting behaviour considering what she was like at the beginning. Another point in this part is also brought during this point of how stereotypically rich girls were like in them days, that they acted very bratty and most relied on there family name to fund their views and actions, what Sheila done was a prime example when she got Daisy/Eva fired over something small and petty and also used her family name. In act two the plot begins to thicken as the inspector involves more people in this inquiry of his. Gerald Croft is the next person to be questioned who is Sheilas fiancà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, it is later on revealed in the questioning that Gerald had an affair with Daisy/Eva, Daisy Renton she was known to Gerald as then. But while Gerald is explaining the story to the inspector Sheila cuts in to express what shes feeling, by saying yes but why are you saying that to him? You ought to be saying it to me; this shows in her language sort of where she uses a rhetorical question to state her point and shows openly what she is feeling at that point instead of bottling it up. Also soon as this news is broken to everyone, Sheila develops even more, piecing together what she had already known about Gerald, e.g. she had a suspicion something wasnt quite normal when she noticed Gerald was spending a lot of time at work supposedly and spending a lot of time away from her but of course now its been revealed that Gerald had an affair, this shows that Sheilas character has developed by showing us that she is more aware of whats going on and is relying less on others to fill her in on all the information. After this Sheilas character differs a lot from what her character was like at the beginning, further into the inquiry the inspector swiftly moves onto Mrs B. (Sheilas mother), the story with Mrs B. goes that she was the head of a womans organization which offers help to women in need or need help with a worthy cause, but its seems that Daisy/Eva went to the organization to plea for help but was turned down due to the fact that Daisy. Eva came to the organization under the name of Mrs Birling which offended Mrs B., while the inspector is questioning Mrs B. leading to the answer of what happened, Sheila rude and openly offers to answer for her mother when the inspector asks Mrs B. to confirm that she is indeed the head of the organization, answering go on Mother. You might as well admit it. (To the inspector) yes she is why? this shows that her character is truly beginning to play a more stronger role within the conversations and the play overall, its shows in her language with the short a quick responses, also her childish language of mummy she referred to her mum before as has changed to mother now shows that her language is maturing.

Stock

Starting a new business venture is never easy; there are a plenty of new issues to address, obstacles to overcome, challenges to face and rivals to compete with. Among the problems that occur most frequently, the case of stock-out must be mentioned. Running out of a specific commodity, especially a crucial one, often becomes a point at which the leader of a company starts panicking, which makes the matters even worse.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Stock-Outs and Their Impact on the Company’s Progress specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, with a well thought-out plan in mind, even the case of a stock-out can be solved efficiently, as long as the company leader develops an efficient backup plan and adopts an appropriate leadership strategy. Although the Stone Horse Supply Company is clearly facing a small crisis now, after several steps have been undertaken, the current issues are likely to be resolve d. Inventory control must be one of the hardest aspects of running a company. Being the key means to run a business, inventory is used for a number of purposes, ranging from preventing stock-outs to providing proper accounting process. It is worth mentioning that, as a rule, an average company spends 45% to 90% of its total expenses on conducting a tight inventory control (Mandel Semenov, 2008). However, the situation can be reversed; stock-outs can be used as a means to control inventory. Once a stock-out takes place, the amount of money typically spent on inventory shrinks to a much lower amount of money; therefore, stock-outs affect the choice and application of inventory to a considerable extent. However, to create a situation in which a stock-out can possibly occur, it is necessary to analyze the target market and its customers, understanding their needs and basic demands to be able to create a stock-out and use it for the benefit of the company. To leverage stock-outs fast an d efficiently, a company must learn how to capture extra demand and use the acquired knowledge for the benefit of the firm (Onwukwe Isaac, 2011). Hence, it can be concluded that the increasing demand for stock-outs is actually the situation when one of the retailers has a surge of customers due to the stock-out situation occurring in the company of another retailer. Therefore, it would be logical to suggest that the demand for stock-outs increases when the specified market is flooded with the companies offering the same services and when the product availability reaches its peak. In the light of the above-mentioned, it would be reasonable to suggest that by measuring the specified product’s availability, one can control the latter, therefore, avoiding the instances when companies have to close down due to the lack of customers. Three basic ways of measuring product availability are commonly distinguished.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see i f we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Classified according to the type of an indicator, which is used for the process of measurement, the given methods seem quite trustworthy and, thus, have to be used by entrepreneurships to avoid possible crises. PEPFAR, or direct, indicators, allow to run a series of tests to check whether the provided goods meet the established standards. After calculating the number of tests, one can figure out whether the result if worth trusting. The GRAF, or global fund indicators, in their turn, help figure out whether the attempts to broaden the goods distribution have been successful enough. Finally, product fill rate, which provides the means to assess the chances of product being supplied from an available inventory, should be mentioned. Moreover, it is important to take account of the factors that affect product availability, such as the number of companies providing the given product, the demand rates and the availab ility of resources (Chandani et al., 2012). In fact, the Stone Horse Supply is not the only company with problems concerning stock-outs; PG has also faced a similar issue recently (PG has better news on stock-outs, 2004). However, with the help of a CDSN initiative, Procter Gamble still manages to stay afloat. For the Stone Horse Supply, it can be advised that the company leaders should consider its key assets. Comparing the latter to the ones of the rivals, the company should offer the target market the services of higher quality compared to the ones of the rivals. Thus, it is worth focusing on the research of the target market, the rivals and the ways to improve the quality of the goods. It must be admitted that the Stone Horse Supply is facing a crisis at the moment; in addition, the crisis is rather severe for an organization that has only started its growth and has not expanded to the size of a medium company yet. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that such rises can be vie wed as a kind of tests. Once a company manages to overcome the crisis by pulling itself together and applying the methods required to solve the problem, it can be considered that the given company has proven its right to exist in the specified market and even expand.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Stock-Outs and Their Impact on the Company’s Progress specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Unless the company takes the test successfully, however, it is clear that it lacks a certain element badly, whether the given element is related to the financial, managerial or organizational field. Though the need to have strong support is obvious, the specified situation can be viewed as a test for the Stone Horse Supply to pass to become successful in the chosen field. Reference List Chandani, Y. et al. (2012). Factors affecting availability of essential medicines among community health workers in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Rw anda: Solving the last mile puzzle. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 87, 120–126. Web. Mandel, A. Semenov, D. (2008). Adaptive algorithms to estimate parameters of the optimal policies of inventory control under limited stock-out. Automation and Remote Control, 69(6), 1012–1022. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Onwukwe, C. E. Isaac, I. O. (2011). On modeling the volatility of Nigerian stock returns using GARCH models. Journal of Mathematical research 3(4), 31–43. PG has better news on stock-outs (2004). Web. This report on Stock-Outs and Their Impact on the Company’s Progress was written and submitted by user Eli W. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Racism A Social Issue in the USA Essay Example

Racism A Social Issue in the USA Essay Example Racism A Social Issue in the USA Essay Racism A Social Issue in the USA Essay Essay Topic: African Religions and Philosophy In the Us Social Issues My Ideological Perspective: Disaffected Comfort Dondo-Dewey SOWK 281 December 5th, 2013 Dr. Katharine Hill Introduction The purpose of this paper is to critically identify and analyze how the multiple influences have shaped my Ideological world views on important social issues such as, poverty, racism, classism,immigration,obesity,crime and the Justice system as well as health care disparities. In this paper, I will identify how these worldview perspectives relate to some of the principles listed in the NASW Code of Ethics; Social work for social Justice and also the UN Declaration on Human Rights principles. Lastly, this paper attempts to identify any conflicts and or harmonies I possess towards the professional frameworks of social work. Religious and Socio-economical Perspectives Based on my responses to the political typology quiz, I am Disaffected, along with 11% of the American public. The Disaffected are a group of individuals that is highly critical of both government and business, while sympathizing with the poor by supporting social welfare programs. Immigration matters are a strong concern for this group. For the most part, the majority of this group believes that the country annot solve many of its important problems and they are conservative both religiously and socially. This group of people is comprised of people who are mostly financially stressed; nearly half describe their households as struggling and about two-thirds only have a high school education or less. 26% possess a US passport, which is below the national average. Interestingly, 23% of this group of people follow NASCAR racing compared to the national average of 33%. More disaffected is parents (44%). To a larger extend, the typology quiz was somewhat accurate; I do sympathize ith the poor and also support social welfare programs. On the contrary, however, I do entirely believe that country can solve its issues and I believe that I am a liberal socially and religiously. I believe my Ideological perspectives and values have been greatly influenced my religious and social upbringing; born and raised in a conservative, rich and very traditional family, I grew up looking at life from the lens of a socially, religiously, conservative and privileged perspective. Having said so, however, I have not always agreed with my fathers involvement in Zimbabwean politics and the corruption that specially the unequal distribution of wealth between those in politics and government and the average person in Zimbabwe. I have always had my own disagreements with the institution of dictatorship and patriarchy; I still believe that most of my young adult life, I have looked at life from a more conservative lens, but also questioned inequalities in my community. Changes in Perspectives Immigrating to the United States at a very young age forced me to live and experience other cultures and religions, especially while attending the College of Saint Catherine. Upon arriving at the College of Saint Catherine, my life changed ecause I was given the opportunity to gain exposure to life experiences that were taboo to my belief systems, including exposure to the LGBTQ community and other religious practices other than the Christian practice that I am familiar with; I have been exposed to Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Atheism to name a few. Being a minority woman, for the first time, it was easy for me to associate with others from different cultures who were similar to myself; hence my ability to change my perspectives on some social, religious and also socio-economic issues. My views and my definition of poverty have changed since I moved to the United States. I used to have a limited knowledge of what it meant to be a minority group or to be poor. Having to deal with the triple Jeopardies of being female, black and an immigrant, I have endured issues like discrimination in the work place and realizing obvious income disparities and this has pushed me into the marginalized groups. Iceland and Wilson (2009), state that areas segregated by race and class frequently saddle poor people with high rent burdens, lack of access to housing, wealth, and housing health risks. All of these factors, as well as historic disenfranchisement, contribute to higher, largely entrenched poverty rate. Every year I have lived in the United States, I have encountered multiple experiences that have changed my perspectives on economic, socio-political and religious perspectives. My views on racism, poverty, and class to name a few have changed as I gain better understanding of my position in a society in which I am a minority. I used to believe that everyone can make it in the idea of the American dream if they only worked hard; in this same mindset, I used to think that those people who were living in poverty, were not trying hard enough but these views have changed with my own personal experiences. I now understand the systematic ways in which minorities are marginalized and are often under- represented in policy making and are somehow held back from higher paying positions making it difficult for certain populations to advance. NASW Code of Ethics UN Declaration of Human Rights According to the NASW (2008) value for Social Justice, the primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human wellbeing and to help meet the basic human needs of all people with a particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed and living in poverty. This is ne of the most important roles that social and poor while supporting social welfare systems, therefore agreeing with the NASW mission for the social work practice. This is accurate because I do sympathize with those who are less fortunate and the marginalized and vulnerable members of the society. According to the United each person needs for a healthy and comfortable life, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and other social services. People have the right to help if they are unable to work. Mothers and children should receive special care and help. This supports my views on those who are poor, vulnerable and marginalized. I believe that it is important to be an advocate for those who do not have the means to speak for themselves and become the middle -man between the resources they need to get and assist them getting those resources. As stated by the United Nations, I believe all human beings deserve an access to basic lifes needs like food, shelter, clothing and medical care. Conflicts Harmonies with professional frameworks of social work According to Stuart (2012), social work draws from many frameworks for practice, but some of these frameworks have had more influence on the profession of social work han others. Among the many different types of frameworks are the Ecosystem perspective, the Strengths perspective, cultural competence perspective, social work ethics and values, social work licensure, and social work practice expectations. Among these many frameworks of practice, I lean towards the strengths perspective and the social work ethics and values more than the cultural competency and the Ecosystems perspective for several reasons. In applying the Strengths perspective in social work practice, the assumption is that every individual, family, group or ommunity has some strength and focusing on them leads to growth and overcoming difficulties. I am in harmony with this perspective because it empowers the clients who in most cases do not have that sense of empowerment. I believe a long- term solution to helping others is not to simply give resources but to teach them how to access them and the strengths perspective seems to draw off of this thought. I do not strongly agree with the cultural competency perspective based on how the NASW defines it; Social workers should understand culture and its function in human ehavior and society, recognizing the strengths that exist in all cultures (NASW 2008). This idea seems to contradict the concept of social workers being learners from their clients. I do not believe that culture is stagnant, it keeps changing as suggested by Laird (1998bbecoming culturally competent is becoming increasingly challenging, he questions whether one can become competent in a culture that is going through constant change. For instance, trying to comprehend the culture of African American individuals, whose culture was defined through slavery, present day African Americans are trying to redefine their own culture based on the present day situation where we have the first African American president. This school of thought argues that instead of becoming competent in their clients cultures, social workers should be aware of their own cultures and be the informed not knowers, so that they can learn about their clients culture from that clients perspective (Laird(1998). I agree with the fact that one cannot learn about other peoples culture or traditions from simply reading or researching about it because within each culture, there are eparate individual families with diverse norms, therefore I disagree with the Cultural Competency based practice. Mo Ye Lee (2005), states that often in social work practice, there is a tendency to pathologize clients, requiring a diagnosis as part of the helping relationshiop. Lee suggests that as we go out to practice, it may be good to assume that not all the clients you will encounter have problems but maybe wrong. I agree with this idea because it seems like a powerful insightful philosophy. This is in essence the strengths -based approach and I am in agreement with this ramework of social work practice. Lastly, I am also in disagreement with the Ecosystems perspective in social work practice; it focuses on the interplay between the person and his or her environment. It seems to focus on the present environment and I think that a persons past experiences play a huge role in their present environment. Although it is true that an individuals environment influences their whole being, the Ecosystem theory seems to ignore the fact that people have a past and that may be the causative agent of the present environment and personal traits. I believe in a holistic approach to social work practice because people are complex and have different needs and wants. Conclusion In conclusion, my religious and cultural upbringing has greatly influenced how I look at the world, but I now must add my own personal life experiences how they can change ones worldview. Although I was raised in a privileged, politically and religiously conservative background, these views have changed over the years as I have had my own personal life experiences which have changed my definitions of some social issues like racism and poverty. As a result, this has increased my illingness to work towards the elimination of some of these inequalities in the society. As Nelson Mandela stated in his popular Long Walk to Freedom Speech, people are taught to hate but they can also learn to love and love is easier than hate so people can easily learn to do the right thing. I was raised in one way that molded my perspectives on so many topics, but I also learned from my environment over time and this has changed many of my world views. References Dean, R. G. (2001). The Myth of Cross-cultural Competence . Families in Society:The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 623-625. Marla-Berg-Weger. (2013). Social Work and Social Welfare. New York : Routledge. Nations, U. (2013, August 23). www. unitednations. org. Retrieved from www. un. org/humanrights/clause25: http:// unitednation. rog Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 623-625 Dean, R. G. (2001). The Myth of Cross-cultural Competence . Families in Society:The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 623-625. Marla-Berg-Weger. (2013). Social Work and Social Welfare. New York : Routledge. Nations, U. (2013, August 23). www. unitednations. org. Retrieved from www. un. org/humanrights/clause25: http://unitednation. rog

The Difference Between an Element Group and Period

The Difference Between an Element Group and Period Groups and periods are two ways of categorizing elements in the periodic table. Periods are horizontal rows (across) the periodic table, while groups are vertical columns (down) the table. Atomic number increases as you move down a group or across a period. Element Groups Elements in a group share a common number of valence electrons. For example, all of the elements in the alkaline earth group have a valence of two. Elements belonging to a group typically share several common properties. The groups in the periodic table go by a variety of different names: IUPAC Name Common Name Family Old IUPAC CAS notes Group 1 alkali metals lithium family IA IA excluding hydrogen Group 2 alkaline earth metals beryllium family IIA IIA Group 3 scandium family IIIA IIIB Group 4 titanium family IVA IVB Group 5 vanadium family VA VB Group 6 chromium family VIA VIB Group 7 manganese family VIIA VIIB Group 8 iron family VIII VIIIB Group 9 cobalt family VIII VIIIB Group 10 nickel family VIII VIIIB Group 11 coinage metals copper family IB IB Group 12 volatile metals zinc family IIB IIB Group 13 icoasagens boron family IIIB IIIA Group 14 tetrels, crystallogens carbon family IVB IVA tetrels from the Greek tetra for four Group 15 pentels, pnictogens nitrogen family VB VA pentels from the Greek penta for five Group 16 chalcogens oxygen family VIB VIA Group 17 halogens fluorine family VIIB VIIA Group 18 noble gases, aerogens helium family or neon family Group 0 VIIIA Another way to group elements is based on their shared properties (in some cases, these groupings do not correspond to the columns in the periodic table). Such groups include  alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals (including  rare earth elements or lanthanides and also actinides), basic metals, metalloids or semimetals, nonmetals, halogens, and noble gases. Within  this classification system, hydrogen is a nonmetal. The nonmetals, halogens, and noble gases are all types of nonmetallic elements. The metalloids have intermediate properties. All of the other elements are metallic. Element Periods Elements in a period share the highest unexcited electron energy level. There are more elements in some periods than others because the number of elements is determined by the number of electrons allowed in each energy sub-level. There are seven  periods for naturally occurring elements: Period 1: H, He (does not follow the octet rule)Period 2: Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne (involves s and p orbitals)Period 3: Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar (all have at least 1 stable isotope)Period 4: K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Br, Kr (first period with d-block elements)Period 5: Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sn, Te, I, Xe (same number of elements as period 4, same general structure, and includes first exclusively radioactive element, Tc)Period 6: Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Po, At, Rn (first period with f-block elements)Period 7: Fr, Ra, Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr, Rd, Db, Sg, Bh, Hs, Mt, Ds, Rg, Cn, Uut, Fl, Uup, Lv, Uus, Uuo (all elements are radioactive; contains heaviest natural elements)

Accounting Management at Shell Company Case Study

Accounting Management at Shell Company - Case Study Example Management accounting information is the information which is necessary for the higher management to take into consideration when making important decisions regarding the organization. It allows the management to make well-informed decisions which can drastically help the company to achieve improved results. Management accounting information is future-oriented which means that unlike financial accounting, it does not just report the past performance of the company but also highlights the sections which can be improved to achieve greater efficiency and profitability. There are basically three types of management accounting information which can be significant for business decision making. This information can be classified into three statements or reports which include the cost allocation reports, budget reports, and forecasting statements. The first type of management accounting information that can be used by Shell management is the cost allocation reports. This report consists of t he information regarding the money invested or supposed to be invested, in particular projects. Organizations today have limited resources and they need to evaluate very carefully the projects they invest in. In the case of Shell, most of its projects involve huge investments and they cannot afford to make a mistake in choosing the right project. Therefore, Shell management can use the cost allocation reports to evaluate the projects which give the highest possible return and also are in line with its company goals and strategy. The second type of management accounting report is a budget report which usually has to be formulated and presented at the start of the financial year. A budget report will consist of the money the business should invest in each business operation and function. Managers usually refer to master, standard and flexible budgets to take decisions. Master budgets include all the allotted resources for expenditures of the whole company as well as for separate depar tments. On the other hand, a standard and flexible budget can help the management to compare the actual and budgeted expenses of the company which can again provide very useful information to the Shell management.

Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Lab Report Example DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) represent the most dangerous type of DNA damage since a single DSB is capable of causing cell death or disturbing the genomic integrity of the cell (Jackson and Bartek, 2009). DSBs are difficult to repair and extremely harmful (Khanna and Jackson, 2001). DSBs generally form when two single-strand breaks (SSBs) occur in close proximity, or when a SSB or certain other lesions are encountered during DNA-replication (Jackson and Bartek, 2009). Ionising radiation (IR) and chemotherapeutic compounds used in cancer also generate DSBs. Mediated by DSBs, DNA lesions develop as a result of recombination between different loci (Kongruttanachok et al., 2010). Thus, a cell constantly faces the risk of DNA damage caused exogenously as well as from an incorrect incorporation of base pairs occurring during normal replication. The chemical changes occurring in the DNA structure, therefore, must be corrected in order to preserve the encoded genetic information. Mechanis ms of DNA damage repair exist which involve systems that detect DNA damage, signal its location and bring about the repair. The DNA-damage responses (DDR) are physiologically very important as each of the nearly 1013 cells in the human body experiences innumerable DNA lesions per day (Lindahl and Barnes, 2000). Nuclear Excision Repair (NER) is a repair mechanism in the cell to deal with DNA damage caused exogenously by UV rays and ionizing radiation, besides other types of chemical alteration to the DNA (Wood, 1997). Mismatch repair (MMR) is an evolutionarily conserved DNA damage fixing process that is employed by the cell when base pairs are added incorrectly during replication (Kunkel and Erie, 2005). At least ten different DNA repair processes are operative in higher organisms (Reed, 2010). Platinum-based compounds e.g., cisplatin, oxaliplatin, satraplatin etc. interfere with the repair mechanisms to effect programmed cell death, or apoptosis. For example, cisplatin when introduc ed into the nucleus, forms adducts (Fichtinger-Sherpman, et al., 1985). The formation of the bulky adducts causes torsional strain on the DNA strand prompting the cell to invoke the NER and/or the Mismatch repair enzymes. However, the repair mechanisms are generally unable to effectively correct the damage as the platinum adduct is a non-native structure, and this leads to permanent DNA damage causing apoptosis of the potentially defective cell (Agarwal et al., 1998). The inactivation of repair processes could have wide-ranging consequences, both beneficial and detrimental. In the context of the former, DNA damage and repair has been the major target of anticancer therapy. Serious attempts are being made to modulate these processes in order to improve their efficacy in the treatment of cancer (Reed, 2010). While DSBs are processed by a number of DNA repair pathways depending partly on the phases of the cell cycle, NER is the only mechanism known to remove bulky DNA adducts, includin g those formed by platinum-based anticancer drugs, from human cells (Readon et al., 1999). A majority of DSBs are repaired by non-homologous end-joining repair (NHEJ) mediated by either

Mills Utilitarianism Analysis Essay Example for Free

Mills Utilitarianism Analysis Essay Thesis: Objectors of Utilitarianism states that there is no time for calculating and weighing the effects on utilizing the general happiness. On the contrary, Mill says that mankind has been learning by experience the tendency of actions in order to know what is right and wrong. The rules of morality is improvable, therefore we should pass all that experience on others. However, improving the rules of morality is one thing, but to educate it to the younger is another; since there is still much to learn about the effects of actions on general happiness, and all rational people go through life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong. Reasons: 1. Philosopher and the human: They have to acquire experience about the effects of some actions on their happiness and improving it or at least maintain it. . Traveler: Mill uses the traveler going for his destination as for if a man needs to follow the rules of general happiness, we should open the way and direct him to the knowledge, and not to forbid it. 3. Sailors: They go to sea with it calculated on the Nautical Almanac. Therefore, as for the people, they go on the sea of life with a made up mind on the common questions of right and wrong, and more complicated questions of wise and foolish. Discussion: Mill’s defend against the objectors of Utilitarianism is that the rules of general happiness are made up by the experience of the people. Also, it is improvable by teaching it to the younger and other people. But, he also argues that human are rational creature. Human are capable of answering the questions of right and wrongness by their own experience, and they also capable of learning and experiencing more on their way of life.

General Sir Arthur Currie Essay -- essays research papers

LIEUTENANT--GENERAL SIR ARTHUR CURRIE (A brief account of the battle of Passchendaele)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie was the most capable soldier that Canada has produced. Certainly, he did not look like the great soldier he had become. A very tall man, at six-foot-four, he was also somewhat overweight. Through his successes as the Commander of the Canadian Corps, he knew how to delegate authority and stand by the decisions of his subordinates.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Currie, however, was not a professional soldier. He was born in Strathroy, Ontario, on December 5, 1875 and raised, he had moved to Canada’s west coast in his late teens. As an adult, he movedto Victoria, British Columbia, he had become a schoolteacher, and insurance salesman, and, a real-estate speculator, an occupation that made him one of Victoria’s leading citizens. Like all goodCanadian businessmen at the time, he joined the Canadian Militia. In 1897, he had enlisted as a lowly gunner in the 5th Regiment, Canadian Garrison Artillery; by 1909, he was the lieutenant-colonelcommanding the regiment. In late 1913, Currie accepted the challenge of raising and training an infantry unit, the 50th Regiment, Gordon Highlanders of Canada.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the war broke out in August 1914, the highly regarded Currie was commanded of an infantry brigade. Currie fought with exceptional composure at Ypres in 1915 where his 2nd Brigade made a remarkable stand against the poison gas. Having impressed his superiors, Currie was promoted to command the â€Å"crack† 1st Canadian Division. He led the â€Å"Red Patch† at Mount Sorrel, through the horror of the Somme in 1916 and at Vimy Ridge, Arleux, and Fresnoy in the spring of 1917. In June, Currie had been knighted and named commander of the Canadian Corps, now four divisions strong.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of Currie’s most impressive and important achievements had come during the winter or 1919-17, while he was still a divisional commander. By analyzing the fighting he had witnessed on the Western Front, Currie had drawn up what proved to be a blueprint for tactical success. In a paper, Currie synthesized the best of British and French concepts, and with many of his own beliefs based on personal experience. Under Sir Arthur Currie, the Canadian Corps emerged as an outstanding formation on the ... ...m: not only was he a mere colonial, he was a non professional to boot, and he was much younger that th earmy commanders who would have reported to him. Far from demonstating his carelessness over casualtiles, Passchendaele proved Currie’s concern for he preservation fo the lives of the men under his command; indeed, Currie’s actons throughout th war stand as strong evidence of his desire, and ability, to win battles only at the least possible cost. A lot of Canadians, veterans and conscripts alike, had little regard for General Currie. Passchendaele convinced many of them that victory was his old consideration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Charges of this nature dogged Currie for the rest of his life. Political enemies, took up the cry as the war wound down. He was being accused as a Canadian commander of deliberatley sacrificing the lives of his men in the pursuit of his own personal glory. His death five years later, in 1933 at the age of fifty-seven, may be attributed, at least indirectly, to the lawsuit. His funeral was a major event in Montreal and thousands lined the streets to honour the â€Å"Great Leader† of the Canadian Corps. He is buried in Mount Royal Cemetery, Montreal.

Compare and contrast Goffmans and Foucaults explanations of how social order is made and remade

Social order is the way individuals fit together with others and things around them (E. Silva, 2009, page 311), it’s what keeps society running smoothly. Order is the implicit (unwritten and unspoken) and explicit (laws, written and spoken) rules that control society’s behaviour and make individuals courteous and respectful to one another. These rules usually go unnoticed and it is only when something happens that is against the norm (earthquake, car accident, and mugging, among other examples) that people begin to question the rules that keep them in order. Both Goffman and Foucault made attempts to explain how order is made and remade. Goffman used a micro approach to explaining order; that is, he concentrated on the individual and patterns of everyday interactions while Foucault used a macro approach, looking at wider society, genealogy and power to explain order. There are many similarities and differences between their approaches. Goffman’s work on interactional order argued that individuals are performers, who act, adopt a mask or follow the norm in their everyday lives (S. Taylor, 2009, page 172). He argued that order is made and remade through every day interactions and that the order is created by repetition and improvisation. He believes that social change comes about due to actions being built and rebuilt (E. Silva, 2009, page 317). Goffman examined rituals and interactions in everyday lives and saw how tact and trust were shown through the use of actions, gestures and language between strangers. Strangers exchange a number of codes of civil indifference through implicit contracts which both allow acknowledgement and protection. However, order breaks down when these codes are misinterpreted or misread and on some occasions punishment follows. First impressions are important and Goffman believes that individuals ‘put on a show’ to try and manage the impression they are giving which helps us to read the situation and categorise people to make a sense of order. Foucault however, looked at discourse (a set of shared ideas used to view the functions of society) and how order is controlled by knowledge and power. Foucault looked at how the knowledge of order comes about (E. Silva, 2009, page 319). He argued that the authority to intervene is allocated to certain individuals (or institutions) and is instigated through practices of law, punishment and education and that different institutions (school, family, workplace for example) have different powers of intervention to regulate behaviour and order. Discourses help shape society towards popular attitudes and allow people to know if they are ‘normal’ by behaving in a certain way. Foucault disputes Goffman’s idea that the individual is self-aware, coherent and in control, he believes that individuals have very little control and that we behave according to knowledge gained through socialisation that we ‘pick up’ as we age. Foucault sees individuals as docile and passive who cooperate in subordination. Foucault believes in a disciplinary society dominated by professionals (experts) who use discourse based on knowledge and power to make and remake social order. Foucault believes there are three different types of power involved in making social order. Sovereign power (power of society’s ruling authority; monarchy, state or political authority) exercises power through the ability to visibly punish wrong-doers. The second form of power is surveillance, where information is gathered and held to keep people in line, to control their behaviour and make them conform to social order. People understand they are under constant surveillance and begin to adjust their behaviour to regulate conduct to be ‘normal’. The third for of power is self-directing and active. This is when individuals believe they are unique and as a result of internalised discipline they order themselves (E. Silva, 2009, pages 321-322). A good example of social order in process is road traffic and road design. The Buchanan Report (Ministry of Transport, 1963) was commissioned to produce a new design for space and roads in the towns around the UK. It was produced in response to the rising number of traffic in towns and residential areas and was about the needs of individuals to live with motor vehicles (E. Silva, 2009, page 327). Buchanan used the argument of scientific rationality (the universally accepted standards that are understood by knowledge), claiming that ‘†¦ Guesswork and intuition can be largely eliminated; given the necessary information†¦ ’ (Buchanan cited in E. Silva, 2009, page 329). Buchanan concluded that traffic and pedestrians need to be segregated and bound by rules through visible displays (such as signs, speed humps and so on). Buchanan’s report is an example of the modernist approach, where space is controlled by rules, prohibitions and orders requiring motorists to adapt to known systems of motoring. Buchanan uses scientific rationality to explain how road users know the rules of the road. He believes that through visible signs and knowledge people learn how to use the road orderly and safely. Foucault claims that people learn order through the knowledge of discourse. He believes that individuals are docile and subordinate and follow rules that have been taught through power by ‘experts’. The Buchanan report shows individual intuition has been eliminated; Foucault also believes that individuals are not in control of their own destinies (E. Silva, 2009, page 321). In contrast to the Buchanan report and Foucault’s order of things approach, Monderman’s thesis allows for individual thought and awareness. Monderman, after years of segregation between vehicles and pedestrians suggested a theory of ‘shared-space’ for road and path users. Starting in the Netherlands in the early 80s, Monderman carried out experiments on road design to show that by creating areas where pedestrians, vehicles and cyclists share the same space to move around, road safety can be improved and awareness of motorists can be increased. Monderman believed people moved round in ‘zombie-like’ states while driving on traditional road designs (segregation of motorists and pedestrians) and are taught to blindly follow instructions and not to think for themselves. He believes this is when accidents occur (order is disrupted) (Monderman cited in E. Silva, 2009, 334-335). In his experiment in the town of Oudeshaske, Netherlands, he removed all road signs, barriers, etc and created an even surface with no road or path markings. He replaced these with trees, flowers and in some areas even fountains to help control behaviour on the roads by psychologically calming traffic by reducing speed and making motorists and pedestrians alike more aware of others around them. Both motorists and pedestrians have to make eye contact before moving/crossing thus making them responsible and aware of their own behaviour. Monderman’s flexible approach of the shared-space scheme, allow for individuals to act of their own accord and to make their own decisions on social order. This is similar to Goffman’s interactional order, where he believes everyday interactions are responsible for making social order. Monderman believes there is a redistribution of expertise, with individuals becoming experts in road safety and their abilities to negotiate shared space (e. Silva, 2009, page 341) and Goffman also believes that individual performers are responsible for creating social change to produce order. In his work, Goffman used participant observation and ethnography to support his theory. By using these methods he studied current issues to find invisible social order to capture the understanding and manifestation of how society is ordered. Foucault however, studied historical documents to question familiarities in the present and found that through processes of social development, social order was created (E. Silva, 2009, page 323). Their methods of investigation differ and this can also have an effect on outcomes. Participant observation can be biased. However, searching historical evidence can only be as reliable as the record keepers at the time. Overall, both Goffman and Foucault have produced theories on how social order is created and maintained, they both agree that society is and integration of fragments being ordered differently, for Goffman these are individual interactions and Foucault believes they are discourses organised by knowledge and power (E. Silva, 2009, page 323). By looking at the present and the individual, Goffman fails to allow for historical influences to factor in to how order is made, Foucault however, allows for historical influences, but fails to allow for the impact of individual personality in the creation of social order. Foucault’s macro theory looks at wider society to explain how social order is formed, this can be beneficial because he looks at historical evidence to see how present social order is formed. Goffman’s micro theory looks at smaller everyday actions and interactions and shows how individuals are responsible (to some extent) for creating social order.

Dialogue Between Plato and Nietzsche Essay

Plato and Nietzsche are sitting in a park enjoying a light picnic lunch. All of a sudden a man dressed in black, wearing a balaclava run’s past and steals Nietzsche’s Turkey sandwich. Nietzsche:This is preposterous! That immoral man has just stolen my last turkey sandwich! This is a horrible position to be in! Plato:What do you mean Nietzsche? Are you saying that you are in a worse position than the thief that stole your sandwich? Nietzsche:Yes that is exactly what I am saying. He isn’t the one who is going to starve to death now is he? Plato:Oh Nietzsche don’t be silly, you’re looking at this in the wrong way. You see, it is you who is in the better position since it is more shameful to inflict wrong than to suffer wrong. Evil derives from wrongful actions, those which by nature involve shame and/or pain. And theft is a very shameful act is it not? Nietzsche: Yes, being a thief is a very shameful way to live, as he is driven by his desires. He must have no self restraint what so ever. Without self restriction how could anyone lead a good life? For it is only through our will to power, strict obedience and restraint over a period of time can great thinking, art and virtue occur. Plato:I agree. The discipline to act justly, control and order one’s body and mind, not need anything and to live virtuously is the only way for true self-fulfilment. Those who repetitively satisfy their desires do not posses real power over one’s self because this gratification further stimulates, rather than eliminates, ones craving for desire. A person who is always fulfilling desire is in continuous need for further satisfaction, and thus acquires no true power over themselves as they are constantly controlled by their urges. Nietzsche:Not only does one need self discipline and obedience, like you said, but they also need to be freed from outer restrictions such as the â€Å"herd mentality† which constrains them from becoming a true leader. Who is to say that this thief does not have to qualities to rule? He has been trained that compliance and obedience toward his herd is best. This herd mentality forces its followers to repress their natural aspiration to become leaders, it unselfs gifted individuals and natural leaders. Qualities such as benevolence, modesty and pity are taught by the herd to be virtuous, when really it is the imaginative, daring, creative and courageous who are the virtuous ones, whom should rise above the herd because they are the natural leaders. Those who have to will to power (drive to do so) are able to live their lives the fullest and therefore ultimately become the ubermensch. Plato:Here is where we differ Nietzsche, the way I see it is that community or herd is not such a bad thing, leaders on the other hand are. Weaker people should not be subject to stronger people. Just like large countries should not attack the small ones, on the grounds of that they are stronger and therefore superior. Governments and communities help to restrain those who cannot restrain themselves and therefore guiding them into leading a more virtuous life. Leaders, such a politicians, on the other hand only seek to amuse and gratify rather than improve the soul. When morality is applied in the masses it is right and natural Nietzsche:But Plato, the theory of evolution has proved that God is dead and is no longer need to explain out existence meaning that conventional morality is irrelevant. Therefore we must create our own morality which is not transcendent or absolute. Plato:Wrong again Nietzsche. Just because there is proof that God may not exist, it doesn’t mean that man creates his own morality or anything else for that matter. You see, in this universe there are two different worlds, the material world and the metaphysical world. We experience the material world with our senses. We can see it, feel it, taste it and touch it. Whereas the Metaphysical world (world f the forms) exists beyond the senses. The Metaphysical world contains perfect examples of qualities and concepts that exist in the material world. We can recognise these concepts (beauty, justice, good etc) and qualities (colour, shape) because we have experienced them in the Metaphysical world. Our soul/mind experiences the Metaphysical world before birth, but the trauma of birth makes us forget this world and we must relearn it thorough philosophy. So, because there is a perfect examples of everything in the Metaphysical world that there is here in the Material world, there must be a perfect form of morality. This means that there is an absolute morality for mankind to live by.

Prejudice essays

Prejudice essays Watkins v. United States (1957) 354 U.S. 178 Facts: Watkins was subpoenaed to testify in a congressional hearing to investigate alleged wrong doings of the Attorney General and the department of justice. Throughout the questioning the congressional committee asked questions that could result in Watkins incriminating himself because of his political beliefs. Due to this Watkins evoked his 5th Amendment right not to answer the question. By doing so the congressional committee indicted him and the Court of appeals upheld Congress's claim. Question: Does Article one of the Constitution bestow to congress the power to interrogate citizens out of a court of law? And can the 5th amendment be used in a congressional committee hearing? Decision: The decision was to reverse the judgement of the Court of Appeals and to dismiss the indictment. Reason: Congress must be able to conduct investigations especially into "surveys of defects in our social, economic, or political system," claimed Chief justice Warren, in order to allow congress to relive those issues. With that in mind Congress has no authority to expose private affairs of persons without it being pertinent to the legislation in question. The Bill of Rights was applied to the Constitution to ensure safety of individual rights from and overbearing Congress. Congress can not ask vague questions to accidentally fall onto the answer(s) they want, specific questions must be used to retrieve the needed information. Barenblatt v. United States (1959) 360 U.S. 109 Facts: Lloyd Barenblatt was a college professor called to testify before the congressional subcommittee House of Un-American Activities. When questioning began Barenblatt refused to answer regarding any past involvement with the Communist Party, firmly believing that past political beliefs are protected under the 1st Amendment of the Constitution. The Supreme Court vacated hi ...

The 49 Techniques from Teach Like a Champion

The 49 Techniques from Teach Like a Champion The 49 Techniques first came to our attention in a March 7, 2010 article in the New York Times Magazine entitled Can Good Teaching Be Learned? The story focused on the book Teach Like a Champion by Doug Lemov. Having taught with mixed success in inner-city Philadelphia, some of us recognized the efficacy of the techniques, even in tough to handle classrooms. This article brings links to some of the blogs we found useful regarding this topic. Setting High Academic Expectations Technique One: No Opt Out. Teachers with high expectations dont accept I dont know, but expect students to be engaged and give it a shot.Technique Two: Right is Right. This technique accepts no half-answers but asks for complete and correct answers to questions.Technique Three: Stretch It. This technique pushes a teacher to take correct answers and ask students to add depth or nuance to their answers.Technique Four: Format Matters. High expectations also means only accepting students answers in complete sentence with good grammar.Technique Five: No Apologies. Teachers with high expectations dont apologize for what they teach. No more Sorry I have to teach you Shakespeare.Technique 39: Do It Again. Repetition is one way to be sure that students understand what you expect and that it is done to your standards. Planning that Ensures Academic Achievement Technique Six: Begin with the End. This planning technique focuses on the outcome instead of what you want to do during the period.Technique Seven: The Four Ms. The four ms of planning are:ManageableMeasureableMade FirstMost Important.Technique Eight: Post It. Be sure your students know your objective for the day by posting it on the board.Technique Nine: The Shortest Path. Although teachers are often enamored with clever approaches, Lemov asserts that the shortest path to the objective is the most effective.Technique 10: Double Plan. Double planning involves planning not only what you will do, but also what the students will do during a lesson.Technique 11: Draw the Map. Drawing the map is controlling the environment by wisely grouping students through the seating chart. Structuring and Delivering Your Lessons Technique 12: The Hook. Introducing the lesson with a hook, an activity or item that grabs the attention of your students will help enhance your lesson.Technique 13: Name the steps. Great coaches, like great teachers, break down the tasks into steps.Technique 14: Board Paper. This technique means that students put everything you put on the board on their paper.Technique 15: Circulate. Keep moving! Drawing the map suggests making room between the desks so the teacher moves unhindered.Technique 16: Break it Down. Breaking it down requires the teacher to use the wrong answers and help students discover the correct number.Technique 17: Ratio Part One. This is a complex idea and requires two parts! It involves increasing student participation and limiting teacher talk.Technique 17: Ratio Part Two. More strategies for increasing the time students are involved in discussion.Technique 18: Check for Understanding. This is an on your feet method of data collection, sort of a formative assessm ent on the run. Technique 19: At Bats. Baseball coaches know that the best way to increase effectiveness is to increase the number of times they are at bat.Technique 20: Exit Ticket. An exit ticket is a quick formative assessment of the lesson your students just finished.Technique 21: Take a Stand. This technique encourages students to have opinions and to take stands on those opinions. Engaging Students in your Lesson Technique 22: Cold Calls. Like the sales technique, the teacher asks someone who is unsuspecting for an answer. It avoids opting out, and keeps all your students on their toes.Technique 23: Call and Response. This technique uses a tradition from African American hymnody and creates a way that the whole class can participate in questioningTechnique 24: Pepper. Like a coach lobbing balls to his fielders, a teacher can pepper his or her students with fast-paced questions, which makes it fun and keeps students on their toes.Technique 25: Wait Time. Teachers are too often too impatient, and provide an answer to their own question when no student pops a hand up. On the other hand, teachers also dont give students time to shape a complete, thoughtful response to a question.Technique 26: Everybody Writes. What goes on the board needs to go in the notebooks.Technique 27: Vegas. Nothing like a little glitz to liven up classroom instruction! Creating a Strong Classroom Culture Technique 28: Entry Routine. Having a structured entry routine expedites the beginning of instruction.Technique 29: Do Now. Familiar to elementary teachers and devotees of Harry Wong as bell work, Do Nows are brief academic tasks to review the previous days work or to introduce the days new work.Technique 30: Tight Transitions. Transitions need to be scripted and rehearsed, so little time is wasted between instructional activities.Technique 32: SLANT. SLANT is an acronym for what excellent attention behavior looks like.Technique 33: On Your Mark. Coaches expect athletes to be ready to engage in their sport. In the same way, a teacher shows students what they need to be on their mark.Technique 34: Seat Signals. Simple hand signals simplify requesting routine interruptions, such as using a bathroom or getting a pencil, can eliminate some of the waste of time that plague instruction.Technique 35: Props. In Teach Like a Champion, parlance, props are fun routines the class does together t o support the success of their peers. Building and Maintaining High Behavioral Expectations Technique 36: 100 Percent. Champion teachers dont create unreasonable behavioral expectations, because their final expectation is that everyone conforms all (100%) of the time.Technique 37: What to Do. Be sure, if you are asking for compliance, that you have been very explicit in explaining what it is you want your students To Do.Technique 38: Strong Voice Part One and Part Two. This technique, strong voice, is one that separates the really effective teacher from the adequate. Its in two parts so you understand its use and how to acquire it. The Blogs below continue the chapter Setting and Maintaining High Behavioral Expectations. Technique 39: Do It Again. This technique is perhaps the only negative consequence that truly works. When students fail to meet your standards, you ask them to Do it again. They model the appropriate behavior but are eager not to have to do it again.Technique 40: Sweat the Details. Building on the broken window theory of policing, Lemov notes that maintaining high standards will have positive effects across the classroom environment.Technique 41: Threshold. This threshold is the one at the door. By meeting and greeting students as they enter you can set the tone for your class.Technique 42: No Warnings. Responding early and proportionately can help you avoid real crises. So rather than giving warning, you mete out consequences when the behavior is still only a minor problem. Building Character and Trust Technique 43 Part 1: Positive Framing. Positive Framing means casting things in a way that is positive and leads to appropriate behavior. This blog starts with three strategies to help you frame it positively.Technique 43 Part 2. Three more strategies for framing classroom experiences positively.Technique 44: Precise Praise. Rather than cheap praise, precise praise is valued by students because it describes what it is you are pleased with.Technique 45: Warm and Strict. It may seem that warm and strict are contradictory, but effective teachers can be both at the same time.Technique 46: The J Factor. The J in J factor stands for Joy. This technique offers ideas to help your students experience the Joy!Technique 47: Emotional Constancy. An effective teacher keeps his or her emotions in check and doesnt make it all about him or herself. Make your good moods about good performance, not about pleasing you.Technique 48: Explain Everything. Be sure your students understand why you do what yo u do, as the why is an important part of instruction. Technique 49: Normalize Error. If students understand that errors are not the end of the world but an opportunity to learn, they will be more willing to take risks and more likely to learn. Teach Like a Champion is an excellent resource for teaching, especially for middle school and high school students. Besides the 49 techniques, it includes recommendations for improving instructional delivery. The book also includes video demonstrations of the techniques which make it well worth investing in the book.

Micro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

Micro Economics - Essay Example According to the Pareto principle social welfare definitely augments only if the benefit of any member of society increases and the welfare of no one falls. Actually when the Pareto criterion is strictly spoken it can be considered as simply an aggregation and decision rule and which could be enforced to non-utility. In reality the original distribution of income and wealth is generally taken as if it is given and alterations in either income or wealth cannot be measured beyond the need of changes themselves satisfy the Pareto criterion. The possible Pareto criterion, involving the gains associated to some alteration to outbalance the losses induced by it, is a less protective criterion. The Pareto principle by itself does not affirm the conclusion that any alteration from a non-Pareto-optimal position to a Pareto-optimum is an improvement. For this, economists rely on the compensation principle. On the other hand this principle itself can be questioned. Economists actually stress that the compensation required in demonstrating a potential Pareto improvement should be handled as hypothetical. But, now the issue is with regard to what is this potential Pareto improvement (PPI)? The potentiality of the principle is regarded as immaterial for its being an improvement? Many economists attempt to instill a PPI with some quasi-physical meaning. They indicate that a PPI, though not the same to an increment in social welfare, nonetheless still establishes an increase in the dimension of the cake from which welfare is deduced, or the capability of the oven in which the cake is baked. These economists state that a positive result of the compensation test depicts an increase in aggregate real income (Kaldor 1939: 550, 551). At the same time economists like Chipman (1987, pp. 524- 530); Kaldor (1939, p. 550), believe in the productive potential of the economy and Boadway and Bruce (1984, p. 97), Hennipman (1976, p. 476); Hicks (1981,

HRM Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

HRM - Research Paper Example ional human resource in Kaiser Permanente has put several measures in place to ensure that both internal and external laws are enforced in a very effective and appropriate way. This plays a very vital role in ensuring that good relationship is maintained in the entire organization and to the extended environment. On the other hand the organizations has several policies which are put in place to ensure that the organization’s goals and objectives are fully achieved. However, for the goals to be met the policies of Kaiser Permanente must be fully implemented. Decisions made in the organization can be borrowed from the transnational scope which implies that Kaiser as an organization can make its decisions on international scope (Harris 98). On the other hand the organization also makes its decisions basing on a worldwide perspective but not on a local perspective. The style of management is also another ideal secret to successful growth of Kaiser. As an organization it has put in place measures to ensure that all leaders or heads of different department are qualified and able to manage the duties of the department bestowed to them. On the other hang the human resource management strategies should put measures in place to ensure that the style of management suits each and every employee within the organization. This enables all the works to discharge their duties effectively and efficiently. However the challenge arises when it comes to coming up with the suitable way of catering for every employee irrespective of the country they come from. The other feature of good leadership in this organization is prevalence several managers from different places of the world therefore the services offered by this managers is commendable (Harzing and Ruysseveldt 45). Multicultural way of operation has also be embraced to ensure than not only the demotic people get employed but also people from the international world, however the core principle of international human resource

Gender identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Gender identity - Essay Example The paper shall also take into account the role of the media and social stereotypes along with the role that different cultures play in the establishment of gender identities. Gender identity refers to the roles of masculinity or femininity that are assigned to individuals on the basis of certain markers, in a certain society. This may vary from one culture to another and no fixed definition exists in society. These identities change over time as well and not just spatially. For instance the Victorian models of femininity have changed a lot and English women no longer abide by the codes of conduct that women in Jane Austen’s novels scrupulously followed. This, however, has certain similarities to the conduct expected of women of countries that were colonized by England. Apart from pointing to the fluid nature of gender identities, this phenomenon also points to the fact that gender identities are influenced by a The sexual orientation of a person decides the partner that he or she may wish to enter into sexual intercourse with. The politics of sexual orientation, however, does not end with producing effects on the choice of a partner though. Desire and gender identities are closely linked and both affect the other. Judith Butler talks of this in her work, Undoing Gender, where she talks of how unconventional sexual orientations affect the conventional definitions of masculinity and femininity that are set by the society, thus offering a challenge to the conventional hierarchies in society (Butler, 2003). Both heterosexuality and homosexuality can offer challenges to oppressive heteronormative social setups; however, homosexual orientations have great effectiveness in challenging the social unit that is the most important factor in the perpetuation of heteronormative societies: the family. Homosexual units offer possibilities to the parties involved to redefine the nature of conjugal relatio nships and to restructure the society. How

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits Automate IT processes Abstract Here is the procedure to analyzing the errors or bugs related to the Project in the IT industry using the automation tools. From this analysis we are able to find the processes of errors caused due to soundness or for syntactical errors Due to this errors the organization is non profitable or losing its profit sales it also lead to downfall of the shareholder values What are the reasons for IT process Automation? This Analysis is very important to the each and every organization to discuss within the company in all aspects of benefits that are achieved through the Automation, key value characteristics should be considered throughout the workflow of automation, and it should be challenged experience to the automation process Overview Now a days IT industry is more Complex than before. Cumulating the number of Apps, Servers , composite scope of Systems, and huge Records: all of this need to be maintained And managed , which is very big difficult task for IT industry in all the aspects like money, manpower.etc.. So Organizations of different Size is looking for an alternative Source which is related to maintain it with more efficiently. In almost all Societies records could be preserved trustworthy and safely. This are all leads to the customized applications As the size of the data increase it implies to the increase on organization administration software and computerization to preserve a reliability in the IT organization with additional professionally to influence on Manpower and increase awareness and retaining of the problematic finish. Monitoring, Ticketing, and change and configuration management are some of the categories for system management product Introduction Why Automation It is used to Save time and manpower it is used to increase efficiency Decrease Mean Time to Repair and increase Mean Biome Between failures man can make a mistake but machine cannot All size of Organizations (Small and Big) are processing there work flow through Automation. It is the best Suitable techniques to increase the Business in all the fields For every Societies a special team of members is organized to maintain the Automation Process This shows the Automation in IT Industry The above scenario shows the infrastructure of IT industry necessary steps to be take part in the growth of Organization Aim To deliver a systematic management solution to the client to procedure with the smooth workflow of an Application Intentions 1. Systematizing the remediation of events and warnings Many of the IT industry have Adopted the advanced technology to have a keen observation on the performance of their growing in IT infrastructures compare to the Other orginisation.There will be a quick alert is produced when any incidents occurred to the infrastructure. When such incidents happened there will automatic solution then and there itself. In IT Automation process, you can automate the remediation of many incidents occurred through: self-initiated, automatic work flow can be done from monitoring tools or manual operator automatic workflow execution through the data center is more faster than the manual process Automatic remediation, like complex servers and infrastructures can be balanced through network load With this system IT infrastructures is secure and safe 2. Authorizing forefront IT professionals to determine additional events Research have been declared that in many of the organizations half of the incident occurred in the infrastructure are estimated beyond the frontline to the notice of the network administrators and management. This incident result to the less productivity and a conference calls to resolve this issue in the personal time as nights, and weekends It Automation process is used to help in transformation of manual big data effect in to sequence and standardized workflows. When an incident happened the workflow automatically imitated compile and execute to the better efficiency. A trigger is automatically starts when the estimated cross the frontline to the knowledge of level 3 administrator 3. Reducing alert abundances There is more chance of Alert happens when IT systems staff concentrate with the alert. They are more active in the alert due to lack the data to know which alert is more active and which is more and just noise. Even a little sound of alert makes the IT staff to be more productive and focus on the critical issue to reduce the noise. Like this IT process automatic initiated to monitor and ticketing product and reaches the frontline operator to take quick action on the alert. The following are the examples for the automation alert in management process: à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·Monitoring tool to identify the incident and make a trigger. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · To make the workflow automatically when the trigger and take the appropriate action from the noise alert and create the ticket for the necessary action. Using the trigger frontline operator produce a ticket to resolve the action in this scenario work load is decreased by using this technology. 4. Create a reliable, repeatable procedure for coordinating modification Now a days IT Organizations is supporting large number of applications, servers and devices, as this number can rapidly grow. Among this some of the Organizations have a well format of documentation and consistently change in the process and some does not have a will documentation, and also produce without updating and changes of the previous due to the three will be consistently raise of issue which feel very difficult for frontline operators to resolve and reactive on the productive issue. For the above aspect IT process automation gives the significant and automatic changes in the configuration management process. The set of automation process is imitated by the IT system administrator to check the workflow of application and servers for the status and trigger, network and automation process for updating. This changes is updated to the thousands of application through the servers, create a document according to the requirements. It process tool is used to improve the overall cost efficiency for configuration management previously manual uses automation process for end-to-end changes in the system management product. This lead to the compact and responsiveness. Observing the previous action in the IT automation helps you to react more efficiently for changes in the business needs it also reduce the time of deployment of new infrastructure? An Organization can see a 70 percent of reduction for the new infrastructure 5. Develop relations between ITIL event administration and difficult management procedure It operators goes to a fire-fighting mode due to continuous receiving and resolving hundreds and thousands of alerts a day. They have to react as quickly as possible to the incident and respond to that alert to maintain critical application uptime. However ticket is not generated as soon as the relevant troubleshooting and resolving the alert. IT automation process can be linked to the incident management to the more effective problem management.IT automation let you to quickly react to the alert and trigger according to the action. For example software application can be checked by checking the server status, network status, application build status, and then database status and relocate to the cogent page for the slow productivity and alert, the record is noticed and repaired. If it is necessary the automation process is restarted for triggering. the data is redirected to the server due to insufficient of memory in the server or application issues. Perform data analysis for the input and output. 6. Capture instance determination review paths and generate procedure documentation It automation process create automatically a value according to the automation alert and incident resolving, due to this there will an increase in uptime and let them to focus on the strategic issues. It automation process also capture each and every information automatically for each step of flow. This information is secure and store in the database for the automation product. Automation process automatically create documentation from the automation flow. Each and every flow of step is described in the new created documentation from the created flow. As a result automation documentation is referred to save the time instead of manual document. In this document each and every step is clearly mentioned from alert triggered to the resolution 7. Incorporate role-based contact mechanism into our event determination procedure Many of the IT industry more struggle for exchange of information between2-3 level support. This exchange of information occurred in the middle of night without observing the capabilities of the current state of system If this is properly implemented, the following features in observed automatically: Role-based access control Capture of input and output data Role based access control is used to capture input, output data.so that automation workflow is done automatically as it is atomized as we discussed in the previously Automation process require credentials for the smooth flow of automation steps. Aping is required according to the credentials of the administrator service of proper credentials When this two features are used together as a result in fewer and more escalations. Automation escalation flows only when the frontline operator does not have a proper permissions or when it requires experts operators interest this are more easy as 2-3 level operators can be determined. 8. Capture structural information in a practical and supportable mode Each and every IT organizations is having a very big challenge to other IT industry in all the fields of business in a continue manner. The talent of IT is rated to the uncompleted document and outdated.so IT Organization completely rely on knowledge produced to the incident happened. When the professionals leave the industry they take away the core knowledge with them and leave the Organization to struggle the alerts. With the help of IT process automation, IT process and procedures are implied as automation flows. These flows are managed as current as they constantly execute repair actions. In IT automation process two way of communication is possible with the CMDB it is used to help to create record, discover changes and updated automatically in the infrastructure in this IT processor change automatically. 9. Systematized maintenance processes Automatic trigger should happen at a particular time or at any periodically interval of time. In addition to this key value pair should be matched to trigger the action. This process of trigger action is a time consuming action in manual process, so automation process is better to apply. Action and task are pre-loaded in the system to generate the ticket and resolve automatically Some are the best examples which suit this action: Shutdown, start, restart are scheduled action. Change of password for the security purpose at a regular interval of time Rebooting and configuring setting at a particular service time Refreshing of data at a scheduled time. Due to this intermittently action. You can atomize the section in IT industry as IT automation process. It is executed according to the workflow defined in the process We can trace back the situation happened which is used to generate the report to the operator. This process helps to growth of Organization in the critical scenario of business. 10. Incorporate distinct systems management implements and procedures Management system product is a mixer of partially deployed, and most of them are not well integrated worth the other network system products. Most of the industry runs on Non-homogeneous management products through multiple vendors. In this process IT industry need the support to maintain large size of data center and multiple network operator centers. It also needs the support of the heterogeneous enterprise to their system product. Due to the large size of data centers and network operators, system management product maintained large integrated business enterprise to automate the It process. The combination of management product and process integration leads to the efficient growth and proactive IT organization Conclusion The beginning is very easy. Now you can start up your Automation of data center operations by implementing IT process automation. In few key areas more focus to be applied, a related experienced in IT industry can efficiently achieve to retain the investment and reduce the industry complexity. This can reduce the investment. This also provide more security to the data Bibliography Books: Marshall, C. (2008) The Executive Guide To IT Process Automation: Opalis. Andrzej, C., Abdelsala, H., Marek, R. (1998) Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology : Kluwer Academic Bruno, V., Thecle, A.(1998) Advanced in Production Management System : Springer Paul, H. (2001) Business Process Change A Manager’s Guide to Improving Redesigning and Automation Processes : Edward Wade Arthut, H., Wil, M., Michel, A., Russell, N. (1998) Modern Business Process Automation : Springer – Verlag Berlin Sanjay, M. (2009) Business Process Automation: PHI Learning Ltd Helmut, R., Norbert, P., Wolfgang, S.( (2012) ISSE 2012 Securing Electronic Business Processes : Springer Vieweg Singh, S.K. (2003) Industrial Instrumentation and Control : Tata McGraw Journal Richard, H. (2005) ‘Intellectual Preperty Key Processes for Managing Patent Automation Strategy Need Strengthening’, Report to Congress Committee, 9(1), pp. 22-34 Russell, R. (2001) ‘Reengineering Business Processes Can Improve Efficiency of State Department License Reviews’, Report to the Chairman and Ranking Minority Member US, pp. 10-17 Newspaper Article Naren, K. (2010) ‘ Role of Automation in the Indian IT Industry’, Deccan Chronicle, 30 May, p.11 Website https://www.netiq.com/products/aegis/ http://www.networkautomation.com/overview/ http://blogs.technet.com/b/servicemanager/archive/2009/12/17/demo-extending-service-manager-to-automate-it-processes.aspx http://www.sap.com/solution/lob/it/software/it-process-automation/index.html http://www.computerweekly.com/guides/A-guide-to-business-process-automation-software http://www.slideshare.net/Ayehu/it-processautomationsurvivalguidefreeebook http://kissflow.com/process_playbook/5-reasons-why-you-should-automate-your-business-process/ Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Chapter One: Defining Terrorism Part One What is Terrorism The Etymology of Terrorism The etymological meaning of the English world terrorism was first adopted in medieval Britain but was first coined in medieval France from the Latin word terrere meaning to frighten (Jeffery 2006: 24). The suffix of ism on the end of the word terror can be constructed as a systematic activity aiming to promote and advance a certain ideological stance. For instance, Marxism argues society can, and will, change when the material conditions are in place to precipitate this change (Marx and Engels 1848: 27). Therefore, because Marxs belief promotes a certain branch of communist philosophy the suffix ism is used to establish his particular ideological viewpoint. Conversely, if one chooses to ignore the political connotation associated with the phrase terrorism, the etymology of terrorism, one could say, is to simply promote the systematic advancement of fear. For example, the parents of a child may simply choose to apply the metaphor of terrorist to personify their expression that their c hild annoy so frequently and unexpectedly that one fears what could come next. Further to this, the etymology of terrorism brings fourth two observations. Firstly, terrorisms rooted meaning has undergone a transformation (the historical context of terrorism will be highlighted later in chapter two, but I will give you a brief outline). Terrorism was first used within the latter part of the ninetieth century as a regime or system of governance, wielded to establish a revolutionary State against the enemies of the people (Williamson 2009: 43). Terrorism, in modern society, is now more commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non-state or sub-national identities against the State. In 1848, terrorism in Europe and Russia was originated by its exponents as comprising a kind of action against tyrannical States. German radicalist, Karl Henizen, underpinned the policy of terrorism directed at tyrannical States as he argued while murder was forbidden in principle, this prohibition did not apply to politics, and the murder of political leaders might well be a physical necessity (Laqueur 1980: 27). Henizen was therefore, perhaps, the first scholar to provide a doctrine for modern terrorism. Moreover, when Jacobins used the term terrorism to describe their regime during the French Revolution (1789-1794), it had a positive connotation, whereas now most commentators agree that the term terrorism is inherently a negative, pejorative term (Crenshaw 1989, Barker 2002). Thus, it is evident that the term terrorism has undergone a transformation both in meaning and in perception. The second observation one identifies with in relation to the etymology of terrorism is that since its inception, the term terrorism has been linked to various ideals such as justice, liberty and morality. This idealism continued to be attached to terrorism into the mid-1800s, even though a transition had occurred in the meaning of the term (Kravchinsky 1884: 508). These idealistic principles upon the term terrorism continue today. For instance, many modern organisations, considered as terrorist organisations, have chosen for themselves names which suggest that they are idealistic. One example of this is the terrorist organisation Al Qaeda. The term Al Qaeda roughly translates into The Base which suggests a certain level of moral unity among its organisation. Additionally, the perception that exists between how terrorists see themselves and how the way that others, particularly target governments, see them, can be explained by the well-known phrase one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fight (I will explain different societal constructions of terrorism later on in this chapter as a critique towards defining the concept terrorism). This phrase, therefore, represents the idea that terrorism is a political term and therefore has to be noted that the political, ideological and religious objectives, which have been an integral aspect of terrorism since its inception is what differentiates terrorism from mere criminal violence which has no greater criminal goal in mind and which is carried out for instant gratification (Williamson 2009: 45). Thus, whereas Osama bin Laden is deemed as a crazed killer within western society, among the east, especially parts of Pakistan and the Saudi kingdom he is deemed as a martyr (Gupta 2008: 8). And so, because of this, we need to adopt a politically scientific approach in helping to understand the definition of terrorism. Applying Political Science to help Understand the Definition of Terrorism The modern political usage of the phrase terrorism can be traced back to 1795 (Laqueur 2001: 6). It is reported that Edmund Burke was the first person to use the word in English, in order to warn people about what he called those thousand of hell hounds called terrorist (McDowell and Langford 1992: 87). The word first appeared in 1798 in the supplement of the Dictionnaire of the Academie Francaise where it was politically defined as a systeme, regime de la terreur (a system, reign of terror). The entry that first appeared in the Academie Francaise conjures up numerous observations that suggest that the term terrorism is political in nature. Firstly, it is clear that to any native French speaker, in the phrase systeme, regime de la terreur fear and terror play a predominant role. Therefore, in this respect, the definition of the Academie Francaise is to be taken more or less as equivalent to terrorism in its broadest sense which we were previously speaking about. Secondly, the politic al context regime furthers the argument that the term terrorism is inherently political in nature. And finally, there seems to be a hint of another condition embedded within the phrase that was placed in Academie Francaise, namely that most terrorist activity is carried out by non-private individuals (thus systeme). Therefore, presumably, these individuals were, or aspired to become legitimate rulers of a recognised States. Moreover, it appears that the definition of Academie Francaise solely aims to define rebel or revolutionary violence, rather than terrorism in its contemporary sense. However, it has only been within the last thirty-five years that political science has enlightened us on terrorist campaigns, groups, activities, tactics, motives, finances, State support and trends (Enders and Sandler 2006: 9). This comparative approach towards defining terrorism has taught us much about what is common and what is different among terrorist activity. For example, a majority of political scientists have characterised many European terrorist organisations as fighting communist organisations with a focused Marxist-Lenin ideology, an anticapitalist orientation, a desire to limit casualties, and a need for external constituency (Alexander and Pluchinsky 1992: 27). Over the last few decades, political scientists have furthered these comparative approaches towards the definition terrorism in which they have identified the changing nature of terrorism for instance, the rise of State sponsorship in the early 1980s to the more modern increase in Islamic fundamentalism in post modern society. Political scientists have also analysed the effectiveness of antiterrorist policies in helping to define the term terrorism, but without the need to apply social statistics. Further to this, Wilkinson maintains that political science defines the phrase terrorism by dividing its definition into three distinctive typologies, these include; revolutionary terrorism, sub-revolutionary terrorism and repressive terrorism. The first typology defines the phrase terrorism as the use of systematic tactics of terroristic violence with the objective of bringing about political revolution (Wilkinson 1975: 74). Wilkinson furthers the typology of revolutionary terrorism by characterising it into four major attributes; (1) it is always a group, not an individual phenomenon, even though the groups may be very small; (2) both the revolution and the use of terror in its furtherance are always justified by some revolutionary ideology or programme; (3) there exists leaders capable of mobilising people for terrorism and (4) alternative institutional structures are created because the revolutionary movement must partake action in the political system and therefore must develop its own policy-making bodies and codification of behaviour (Wilkinson 1975: 79). To give a more detailed picture of Wilkinsons typology of revolutionary terrorism towards the political definition of terrorism we should add Hutchinsons list of essential properties, these are; (1) it is part of a revolutionary strategy; (2) it is manifested through acts of socially and politically unacceptable violence; (3) there is a pattern of symbolic or representative selection of victims or objects of acts of terrorism and (4) the revolutionary movement deliberately intends these actions to create a psychological effect on specific groups and thereby to change their political behaviour and attitudes (Hutchinson 1978: 18). The second category in Wilkinsons typology to define the political definition of terrorism is sub-revolutionary terrorism. Sub-revolutionary terrorism is defined as terror used for political motives other than revolution or governmental repression (Wilkinson 1975: 81). Whereas revolutionary terrorism seeks total change, Wilkinson argues that sub-revolutionary terrorism is aimed at more limited goals such as forcing the government to change its policy on some issues, warning or punishing specific public officials, or retaliating against government action seen as reprehensible by terrorist (Wilkinson 1975: 82). Therefore, in this respect, under the typology of sub-revolutionary terrorism pressure groups such as Fathers for Justice and Green Peace may be deemed as terrorist organisations. Wilkinsons third typology, repressive terrorism, is defined as the systematic use of terroristic acts of violence for the purpose of suppressing, putting down, quelling, or restraining certain groups, individuals or forms of behaviour deemed to be undesirable by the oppressor (Wilkinson 1975: 83). Therefore, the political definition of terrorism under the typology of repressive terrorism relies heavily upon the services of specialised agencies whose members are trained to torture, murder, and deceive. The terror apparatus is then deployed against specific opposition groups and can be later directed against much wider groups (Wilkinson 1975: 84). One example of this is Nazi Germany, where the Schutzstaffel (SS), the specialised agency, deployed terroristic apparatus against the opposition group, the Jews. Moreover, the main advantage of applying a politically scientific approach to defining terrorism has been its electric, multidisciplinary viewpoint encompassing historical, sociological, and psychological studies. Historical studies identify common features among terrorist campaigns and indicate how the phrase terrorism has evolved over time. In sociological studies, sociologists analyses societal norms and social structure within terrorist organisations. And, by using psychological studies, researchers have identified internal and external variables associated with the escalation of violence in a terrorist event (Enders and Sandler 2006: 10). Furthermore, some factors, for example, may induce an individual to become a suicide bomber, for example, include sociological the approval of a group and psychological factors personal mentality. Thus, certain fields may interlink to accompany political science in helping to define terrorism. Another field that has helped revolutionised the way we perceive the definition of terrorism is law and to illustrate this point one is about to examine the definition of terrorism under general international law. Defining Terrorism under General International Law Recent interest in the utility or propriety of a definition of terrorism under general international law has been driven by larger issues, such as the need to build international solidarity within the war of terrorism, and the opposing need felt by some of guarding any such possible definition of terrorism from any undue weightage likely to be given to the unilateral belief of any one State, and particularly the meaning likely to be or already given to the term terrorism in the foreign policy of any one State (Hor et al 2005: 37). Therefore, the need to define terrorism, comprehensively, under international law cannot be divorced from such over-riding political concerns which, together with some old diplomatic obstacles, continued to plague the negotiations towards the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism in 2005. The rationale behind such a comprehensive treaty to define the phrase terrorism was a response to calls beginning within the 1990s for a departure from a reg ime of variegated subject-specific treaties. The initiative for such a treaty to define terrorism derived from India (United Nations General Assembly 2005: 166). The treaty established the United Nations General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996, which had established an Ad Hoc Committee together with a United Nations Sixth (Legal) Committee, which was tasked with negotiating on the Draft Comprehensive Convention (Reichard 2002: 18). However, one would like to focus upon the question of whether a customary or general international legal definition of terrorism already exists, and if so, what does a customary definition look like. Legal guidance to define terrorism under general international law lies at least as much in international custom as it does under the Comprehensive Convention of International Terrorism treaty. This is partly due to the time-lag that occurred between the completed text-based treaty and widespread participation that took place within the new treaty regime. Moreover, it is due to the fact that much of the new comprehensive definition was not all that new, thus proving the United Nations are a long way off achieving essential combinations of (1) having a precise formation that would necessarily prove useful in defining terrorism and (2) at the same time, attracting the necessary widespread participation of States to make such a comprehensive regime a success (Lim and Elias 1997: 27). State-sponsored terrorism is a good exemplar over what terrorism might be taken to mean in the eyes of general international law. Professor Brownlie concurs with this statement as he maintains that State-sponsored terrorism is governed mainly, if not exclusively, by the available categories of international legal thought such as the prohibition of the use of force in international relations, the doctrine of imputability in establishing State responsibility for acts of the individual and the self-defence doctrine. He argues there is no category of the law on terrorism and the problems must be characterised in accordance with the applicable sectors of general international law: jurisdiction, international criminal justice, state responsibility, and so forth (Brownlie: 2004: 713). However, this may to true insofar as international law has not yet evolved to encompass an agreed definition of terrorism, the various subject-specific rules of international law which focus on individual criminal responsibility for different acts of terror such as hijacking, terrorist financing, and so on, can neither be insulated from nor absorbed wholly by the currently existing international law rules which may be brought to bear on State-sponsored terrorism. Several States leading up to the Rome statute, for example, viewed terrorism, under international law, as a distinct criminal event which imposes individual criminal responsibility for State-sponsored terrorism. In this respect, the definition of terrorism differs when defining the phrase terrorism under State-sponsored terrorism and from what the definition of terrorism means under the International Court of Justice. For example, in the Nicaragua case, Nicaragua had brought a claim against the United States for alleged covert support given by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to armed insurgents operating in Nicaraguan territory in response to the Sandinista Governments covert support of the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front in El Salvador. The issue was that there were interstate in international law rules pertaining to breach of the United States legal responses owed to Nicaragua by allegedly financing, supporting, equipping, arming, training and providing strategic guidance to Nicaraguan rebels seeking to overthrow the Sandinista Government (McCoubrey and White 1995: 12). In short, the case of Nicaragua was about defining the phrase terrorism through state responsibility and not solely as a means of political violence. On the other hand, Professor Mani recently suggested that what we call terrorism today is, in fact, very much state-sponsored terrorism. This, he suggests, is a direct result of the prohibition in Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter of the use of the force in international relations, which would nonetheless attract individual responsibility for such acts. Therefore, the legal definition of terrorism may be seized by the figure of Osama bin Laden, and we may be startled that by the late twentieth century the only superpower in the world was required to go to war with a mere individual, but that does not change the fact that, for the most part, the definition of terrorism is closely linked to state-sponsorship (Murphy 1999: 161). The difference, therefore, between Professor Manis and Professor Brownlies viewponts is one that has marked debate among the social sciences for a number of years. For example, a majority of scholars adopt Brownlies viewpoint that the definition of terrorism, especially State-sponsored terrorism, is solely a product of individual extreme criminality. But we must not ignore Manis argument that the definition of terrorism under State-sponsorship, which has become an ongoing growing phenomenon, and has become a powerful focal-point for advocating the plight of the Palestinian people, for example. Therefore, in a world where we have learnt to view some States as rogue or parish, calling States such as Israel a terrorist State serves to highlight the Palestinian cause, and stigmatise the perceived wrongdoer all at the same time (Jansen 2001: 47). Thus, by defining the phrase terrorism under the use of general international law no one can pinpoint a precise definition of the phrase terrori sm as the word itself is unattainable. To further this discussion one will now begin to highlight the problems associated with defining the phrase terrorism in which one will begin by examining terrorism as a moral problem. Part Two Problems in Defining Terrorism Definition of Terrorism as a Moral Problem A major stumbling block towards defining terrorism is that, at base, terrorism is a moral problem. This is, therefore, one of the major reasons for the difficulty over defining of terrorism. Attempts at defining the phrase terrorism are often predicted on the assumption that some classes of political violence are justifiable whereas others are not. Many would label the latter as terrorism whilst being loathe to condemn the former with a term that is usually used as an epithet. So, in order, for a definition to be universally accepted it must transcend behavioural description to include individual motivation, social milieu, and political purpose (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The same behaviour will or will not, therefore, be viewed as terrorism by any particular observer according to differences in these other factors. However, if the definition is to be of use to a wider audience than the individual who constructs it, students of violence will have to try and divest themselves of the traditiona l ways of its definition. Just as an increasing number of commentators seem to be able to even-handedly apply the term terrorist to non-State and State actors they will have to apply it even-handedly to those groups with whose cause they agree and those with whose cause they conflict (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The difficulty here is, however, is that different groups of users of definitions find it more or less easy to utilise definitions which focus on behaviour and their effects as opposed to these factors tempered by considerations of motives and politics. Thus many academic students of terrorism seem to find it a little difficult in labelling an event as terrorist without making a moral judgement about the act. Furthermore, many politicians, law enforcement and governmental officials, and citizens find themselves unable to take such a detached view (Wardlaw 1985: 4). For this reason, it may not be too difficult to construct an acceptable definition within this given reference group, but the problem arises when each group attempts to engage into dialogue with each other. This communication problem is of more than academic importance. This is because it is one of the root causes of both the vacillations in policy which characterises the response of most individual states to terrorism and of the complete failure of the international community to launch any effective multi-lateral initiatives to combat the problem (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Therefore, those who study terrorism within any given community often cannot communicate with the policy-makers and law enforcers because the latter groups often reject the analytical techniques of the former as being of insufficient relevance to the real world. This is partly due to the latter groups seeing the lack of relevance as an inability to distinguish between right and wrong acts. Moreover, at an international level, political support given to sectional interests militates against a universal definition that could form the basis for international law and action (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Thus, for example, the Palestine Lib eration Organisation (PLO) is seen by some nations as a terrorist group having no political legitimacy and using morally unjustifiable methods of violence to achieve unacceptable ends. Conversely, other nations deem the actions of the PLO as acceptable legitimate representation of opposed people using necessary and justifiable violence (not terrorism, one needs to emphasise) to achieve a just and inevitable end. Therefore, the problem within defining the phrase terrorism rests upon moral justification. However, in order to further illustrate ones argument into the problems of defining terrorism one needs to seek to explain such a phenomenon, and not solely justify the problems in defining terrorism wholly on moral justification. And so, in this respect, we need to assess the identity of terrorism in order to seek the problem of its definition. Difficulties in Defining Terrorism Due to Identification Another factor that deserves to be noted within the process of identifying the problems associated with defining the concept of terrorism is identification. The reasoning for this is down to the fact that identification is key to its rhetorical success. Thus, an act will become to be seen as terrorist if people identify with the victim of the act. One example of this is the role of media in reporting terrorism. To explain, the media tend to portray terrorist acts as newsworthy because it acts as an instrument of legitimation. Other example of this happening are within areas of muggings, environment crime, and white-collar crime. Therefore, if the identification of the terrorist act, in the perpetrators eyes, is positive the implication for official regimes becomes positive. Take State-sponsored terrorism as an example, if such States are industrialised societies than industries are active participating actors within the official terrorist regime. Furthering the example, because State -sponsored terrorism usually involves bureaucracy (police, armed forces, intelligence agencies, secret police, immigration control, and information control) it becomes the administration of terror thus identifying the definition of terrorism as a positive outcome. Moreover, Thornton describes the identification of terrorism as a problem of its definition by suggesting its a process of disorientation, the most characteristic use of terror (Thornton 2002: 86). However, it is important to emphasise that in Thorntons quotation of terrorism he places emphasis on terrorisms extranormal quality. Firstly, one would like to highlight the use of terror in Thorntons quotation is solely placed within the upper levels of the continuum of political agitation and therefore is not representational of terrorism as a whole but only political motivated terrorism. Furthermore, Thornton is placed with the difficulty of defining extranormal a difficulty which is not resolved throughout his argument. One maintains that it would be more productive to seek other ways by which the identification of the definition of terrorism could be more distinguishable from other forms of crime, for example, muggings both of which have the effect of producing State terror in the v ictim. One way terrorism can be distinguishes from other forms of crime is that it has an audience wider than the primary victim, although, the same can be said about muggings. For instance, if a number of muggings take place in certain location, intense fear will be engendered in many other individuals who have cause to be or in the same places. The identifiable feature, that distinguishes terrorism to other forms of crime, therefore, is the design to create anxiety rather than the extranormality of the anxiety, which Thornton discussed. Terrorism is further characterised by its highly symbolic content. Thornton contends that the symbolic nature of terrorism contributes significantly to its relatively high efficacy. Thus; If the terrorist comprehends that he is seeking a demonstration effect, he will attack targets with a maximum symbolic value. The symbols of the State are particularly important, but perhaps even more are those referring to the normative structures and relationships that constitute the supporting framework of society. By showing the weakness of this framework, the insurgents demonstrate not only their own strength and the weakness of the incumbents but also the inability of the society to provide support for its members in a time of crises. (Thornton: 2002: 91) To further the claim that the problem in defining the phrase terrorism is down to identification we must strengthen Thorntons argument by introducing two terrorist approaches, these are enforcement terrorism and agitational terrorism. A Tale of Two Terrorist Approaches Enforcement Terror and Agitational Terror Within Thorntons broad definition of terrorism, he has distinguished two categories of how terrorism can be defined. These are through the uses of enforcement terror and agitational terror within terrorist activities. The first approach, enforcement terror, is used by those in power who wish to annihilate challenges to their authority, and the second approach, agitational terror, describes the terroristic activities of those who wish to disrupt the existing status quo and ascend to political power (Thornton 2002: 117). For instance, Nazi Germany and Stalin Russia can be said to inhabit examples of enforcement terror as each government would use fear tactics such as the murder of their citizens to shock them into not establishing a rebellion. Whereas, it could be argued that some socio-political groups such as the Irish Republic Army (IRA) use agitational terror such as the bombing of public places in order to achieve political power. Similarly, May (1974: 285) also observed a divide into the broad definition of terrorism, he theorises these as; the regime of terror and the siege of terror. The former, May refers to, is terrorism in service of establishing order, while the latter refers to terrorism in service of revolutionary movements. May accedes that the regime of terror is more important of the two but also notes how the siege of terror is also what grips societys attention, as May states revolutionary terrorism, derivative and reflexive though it may be, exposes a level of perception into the universe of killing and being killed that may be even more revealing than state terrorism (May 1974: 290). The argument May puts forth about the regime of terror versus the siege of terror is in fact one of the most interesting puzzles of anyone studying terrorism to come to grips with as most commentators and scholars often focus their attention on the insurgence of terrorism rather than the incumbent nature of terrorism. There are a number of apparent explanations for this. Firstly, one of the hallmarks of insurgence terrorism is that it is dramatic and thus newsworthy. The reason why insurgence terrorism is newsworthy is that it is atypical in nature, it can be addressed stereotypically, and it can be contrasted against a backdrop of normality which is largely overly-typical (Cohen and Young 1981: 52). Thus, when terrorism becomes institutionalised as a form of governance it makes headlines less often simply because it has less news value than a high jacking of an airliner. Another reason for the lack of attention paid toward what May called the regime of terror may be traced back to t he processes of constructing social realities. To explain, the portrayal of official terrorists as rational beings compared to the lunatic and out-of-control nature of the individual terrorist encourages the mass of society to see the threat to their physical and psychic integrity coming from the latter direction (Reddy 1998: 163). Many academics adopt this notion that while states that enforce a regime of terror may be undesirable, the immediate fear from society perhaps mostly from imagery projected into the public persona from the mass media is individual terrorism. It is this component of uncertainly that plays a large part here. For instance, state terrorist activities may be brutal and unjust (Chomsky 2005: 185), but, in general, one knows what activities not to indulge in in order to escape its immediate and person intrusion. Moreover, it also has to be noted that individual terrorism by contrast bears no necessary relation to ones own behaviour. It appears random and dangerous. Here again we hear the echoes of the impact the media has on reporting such events. Furthermore, it must be remembered that many states currently experiencing terrorism are authoritarian states that exert to some extent control over what the news reports. In said cases, therefore, the media can hardly castigate authoritarian go vernments for their excesses thus fearing reprisals such as license cancellation but they can, and do, bring the threat of terrorism by small groups and individuals into the homes of the masses. The view of terrorism therefore is fostered of a society plagued by dangerous extremists damaging the fabric of everyday life and threatening the sate whilst ignoring the greater damage that is being perpetrated as a result of government policies and action plans. However, it is of course much easier to focus greater emphasis on a specific perpetrator than on one amorphous system. There is, therefore, are some sensible practical reasons for the reluctance of scholars studying the phenomenon of state terrorism. For instance, Gloom noted; Historians find it difficult to think themselves into the mores of Robespierres or a Stalins regime of terror and it is dangerous to conduct field research in contemporary regime of terror. It is far easier to conceptualise the use of terror as a weapon to achieve a specific goal rather than a form of a regular and normal government (Gloom 1978: 73) Further to this, the only systematic effort develop general theory of terrorism based on an analysis o